Exploring the Realm
of Positive Psychology and the workplace with a glimpse of eastern perspective
By Dr. Navin
Kumar
Associate
professor in Psychology (BRAC, University of Delhi)
E-mail- navinbrac@yahoo.co.in
Goal
of positive psychology is to focus on neglected good things in life namely.
Happiness is the continuum of positive and negative life emotions.
Valuable
insights of positivity have been derived from the trenches of life’s hardship
and suffering.
An
engaged life is characterized by pursuing pursuits, work and leisure related to
one’s interest and sense of autonomy, engagement and meaningfulness are
complementary to each other and an important foundation of personal
satisfaction & health.
Positive
psychology is an attempt to move from a stable psychic anarchy to a state of
psychic hygiene.
Modern
age of capitalism and scientific methods has led to the growth of
individualistic activity. Man became a log in the vast economic machine and its
main purpose happiness or salvation became less important. Exclusive love for
one person and the withdrawal of love for others is contradictory. Selfishness
and greed which is on the rise is an endless effort to satisfy the need without
ever reaching satisfaction. Selfishness breeds envy of anyone who might have
more at the conscious level such persons is anxious, restless and at the
unconscious level they dislike themselves.
We
are being isolated and alienated with ourselves in our striving for modern
selfishness that is rooted in the frustration of the real self and whose object
is social self. The so-called rationality of technology and economic systems of
production factories clothes has made him/her estranged from the product of his
own hands and the masters of his man-made world seems to no more a master of
it. The scope of manipulation has increased in every domain of our
relationships. Our self- esteem is highly dependent on success of personality
and acquiring popularity has become essential or the confirmation of others is
more important. In the capitalistic economy superior power of big enterprises
has increased the insecurity and powerlessness of the small enterprises. The
situation of employees in enterprises has also changed and employees hardly get
opportunity to interact with the Boss and they have to deal with an abstract
figure of management. As an abstract customer we are welcome to the big
departmental stores having vast buildings. Profession of commodities displayed
but as a concrete customer we are utterly unimportant. Academic institutions
are also becoming the dulling the capacity for critical thinking and pedogical
patterns followed hardly provides any space for the student’s participations in
the decision making.
Rapid
pace of urbanization constant accosting bombardments on the roads, breaking
news every hour leaving one no choice to decide what is important, huge
buildings and many other expressions in which an individual feels like a small
particle to control these uncontrollable dimensions.
In
the present day society optimum possibility for individual and social
functioning is not guided by spontaneity but withdrawing into phantasy for the
lack of production of self- expression.
Positive Emotions:-
Happiness-
Can we experience negative affect
and “positive affect at the same time?”Could we go to an engaging movie and
come out feeling both pleasure and fear?
Feeling positive emotion related
to altruism, solving problems and good decision making.
Fredrickson (2000) demonstrated
that the experience of joy expands the realm of what a person feels like doing
at the time, this is referred to as the broadening of an individual momentary
thought-action repertoire.
Joy induces playfulness (Frijda-1994).
Positive emotions may increase resistance to the common cold (psychosomatic
medicine vol.65, no.1)
People who scored low on positive
emotional style were three times more likely to get sick than those with high
positive emotional style (Sheldon Cohen).
Roots of happiness:
Objective
circumstances:
Money, good job, marriage, good
relationship, culture play an important role in happiness.
The Hedonic Treadmill: - The
tendency for objective changes to wear off is called hedonic treadmill (Brickman
& Campbell 1971).
A big success at work or in romance
will bring joy for a while, but then the person goes back to being happy or
unhappy as before.
Sudden wealth makes a
person very happy but does the ability to be happy also increases at a permanent
note. Sudden wealth may give rise to providence, unnatural relation with
friends &relatives and so on.
Subjective roots of happiness-
10 years down the line a person may
have different job, home, hobbies and money, some different family members but
does their happiness will also change? not necessary. Some people do change for better
or worse but mostly people who are happy now will remain happy in future.
In research also it is found that
people who expressed positive emotion live much longer than those with negative
emotions.
Theories of happiness have been
categorized into three types.
Need and goal
satisfaction theories:
Freud, Maslow proposed that we are happy
because we have reached our goals.
Process/activity theory:
This
theory proposed that engaging in particular activities generates happiness.
Mike Csikszentmihalyi (cheek-sent-me-high) proposed that people who experience
Flow (engagement in interesting activities) in daily life tend to be very happy
(2000).
Genetic & personality disposition theories:
Theorists
of this camp like Diener, Larsen & Watson consider happiness as a statue
dimension. Relationship between personality & happiness is more
idiographic. Lucas and Fujita (2000) shared that extroversion’s neuroticism,
two of the big five factors of personality (openness, conscientiousness,
agreeableness, extraversion & neuroticism) were closely related to the
characteristics of happiness.
Psychologists
supporting the hedonistic mode states subjective well being as synonymous with
happiness whereas other scholars support Aristotle’s view on eudemonia is
comprised of happiness with meaning.
Martin E.P Seligman
states that when well being comes from engaging our strengths & virtues,
our lives are imbued with authenticity. Feelings are states momentary
occurrences that need not be recurring feature of personality. Traits in
contrast are two states – negative or positive characteristic that brings about
good feelings & gratification.
Lyubomirsky,
Sheldon & Schkade (2005) proposed that “a person’s chronic happiness level
is governed by three major factors: a genetically determined set point for
happiness, happiness related circumstantial factors & happiness relevant
activities & practices” (p-111).
Lyubomirsky
& colleagues “architecture of sustained happiness” (p.114) incorporate what
is known about genetic components of happiness, the circumstantial/demographic
determinants of happiness, & the complex process of intentional human
change. They further proposed that genetics account for 50% of population
variance for happiness. Whereas life circumstances (both good & bad) &
intentional activity (attempts at healthy living & positive change) account
for 10% & 40% of the population variance for happiness, respectively.
Keyes &
Lopez (2002 p.49) define “complete mental health” as combination of “high
levels of symptoms of emotional well being & social well being, as well
absence of recent mental illness.”
David Myers suggestion for a
happier life (The Pursuit of Happiness, 1993):
Realize that
enduring happiness does not come from success. People adapt to changing
circumstances even to wealth & disability.
Take control of
your time – mastering their use of time.
Act happy – talk
as if you feel positive self esteem, are optimistic & outgoing.
Seek work &
leisure that engages your skills.
Join the
movement.
Give your body
the sleep it wants.
Give priority to
close relationships. Intimate friendships with those who care deeply about you
can help you weather difficulties.
Focus beyond
self happiness – increase helpfulness.
Keep a gratitude
journal - those who pause each day to reflect some positive aspects of their
lives (their health, friends, family, freedom, education, senses, natural
surroundings & so on) experience integrated well being.
Nurture your
spiritual self.
Life enhancement strategies:
Love – surround yourself with
happy people. Tell those close to you that you love them.
Work – start a meeting with
positive comments about peer contribution, bring homemade treats to class.
Play – engage in your favorite
play.
Stanton, Kirk, Cameron &
Danoff – Burg (2000) identified two processes involved in approach oriented
emotion focused coping, one involves emotional processing or attempts to
understand emotions & a second involves emotional expression or free or
intentional display of feeling.
Emotional intelligence– in 1960,
Mororer addressed the prevailing thoughts about emotions undermining
intelligence by suggesting that emotion was in fact “a high order of
intelligence” (p-308).
Salovey & Mayer’s four branch
ability model of emotional intelligence include perceiving emotions, using
emotions to facilitate thought, understanding emotions & managing emotions.
Emotional story telling:
When people adapt an approach to
use more positive emotion words (like happy or laugh) as part of their
expression their well being improves. Mere act of written disclosure of
emotions upheaval is called emotional story telling or pennebaker paradigm.
Putting upsetting experiences
into words allows people to stop inhibiting their thoughts & feelings to
begin to organize their thoughts & perhaps find meaning in their traumas
& to reintegrate their social networks”. (Niederhoffer & Pennebaker,
p-581, 2002).
Optimism:
Seligman reformulated his theory
of helplessness to formulate theory of learned optimism.
Optimists explain negative things
highlighting bad outcomes account to other people or environment, interpret had
event as exception & explain had outcomes to a particular domain instead of
generalizing it.
Learned optimists has following
characteristics: (Carr 2004)
Better academic
performances (Deterson & Barrett, 1987, Seligman, 1998).
Superior
athletic performances (Seligman, 1990).
More productive
work records (Seligman, 1986).
Greater
satisfaction in interpersonal relationships (Fincham, 2000).
More effective
coping with life stressors (Nolen – Hoekesma, 2000) .
Less
vulnerability to depression (Abramson, Alloy et al., 2000).
Superior physical
health (Peterson, 2000).
Hope – (Snyder)
Hope is defined as goal directed
thinking in which persons utilizes pathways thinking (the perceived capacity to
find routes to desired goals) & agency thinking (the requisite motivation
to use those routes).
Altruism:
Altruism is a behavior aimed at
benefitting another person. It can be motivated by personal egotism or it can
be prompted by “pure” empathic desire to benefit another person, irrespective
of personal gain (Batson, 1991).
Volunteerism is thought to be a
naturally related concept to altruism (Haski- Leventhal, 2009).
New York times reported that
across the united states as a whole 72% of American said they were devoting
less time to volunteerism & other civic activities, like providing food
& shelter to those in need (Strom, 2009).
Egotism is the motive to pursue
some sort of personal gain or benefit through targeted behavior.
Most of the thinkers believed
that egotism is a primary motive of altruism.
C.Daniel Batson in his book The
Altruism question, altruism involves human behaviors that are aimed at
promoting another person’s well – being.
Altruism can be motivated
egotism, empathy or values.
Gratitude
The term gratitude is derived
from the Latin concept gratia, which entails some variant of grace,
gracefulness & graciousness (Emmons, McCullough & Tsang 2003). As such
gratitude taps into the prosperity to appreciate & savor everyday events
& experiences. (Bryant 1989, Langston 1994)
People can enhance their
gratitude by participating in acts of humility & sharing even small gesture
of thanks with the people around them. Gratitude also helps people to
appreciate other person’s qualities & they are more likely to help others.
Gratitude includes s a sense of gratefulness for the people, which comprise not
only receiving but also acts of giving.
On the basis of a
multidimensional prayer inventory, (Laird & his colleagues (2004) developed
a 3 items thanksgiving self report subscale on which people respond along a 7
point response scale. (1= never, 2= very rarely, 3= rarely, 4= sometimes, 5=
many a time, 6= frequently, 7= always.
Three thanksgiving items are:
I offered thanks for specific
things.
I expressed my appreciation for
my circumstances.
I thanked god for things
occurring in my life.
44 –item GRAT – Gratitude,
Resentment, & appreciation Test – developed by Watkins.
The trait self report index that
appears most promising is the Gratitude questionnaire (GQ – 6) (McCullough,
Emmons & Tsang, 2002).
Forgiveness:
Philanthropist John Templeton
(1990) did attach importance to this concept.
Forgiveness is a freeing from
negative attachment to the source that has transgressed against a person
(Thompson et al. 2005)
McCullough (2000) forgiveness
reflects increases in prosocial behavior toward another such that there is 1).
Less desire to avoid the transgressing person and to harm or seek revenge
toward that individual and 2). Increased desire to act positively toward the
transgressing person.
Forgiveness
is defined as “a willingness to abandon one’s right to resentment, negative
judgment and indifferent behavior toward one who unjustly hurt us, while
fostering the undeserved qualities of compassion, generosity and even love
toward him or her (Enright, Freedman & Rique, 1998 p-46-47).
The goal of forgiveness is to
promote a nondistorted, realistic appraisal of relationship of two people.
Forgiveness promotes the stages of recovery from psychological trauma over
time.
Couple progresses from the
initial impact stage to search for meaning or understanding of what happened to
them. Finally the couple moves to a recovery stage in which they “get on with
their lives”. (Gordon et al 2005).
In Impact stage there is
typically a rampage of negative emotions – hurt, fear & anger. Then in the
Meaning stage the partners search desperately to comprehend why the affair
happened. Lastly the couple slowly begins to recapture a sense of control over
their lives.
For
Enright (2000) it is crucial that forgiving person develop a benevolent stance
toward the transgressing person.
By
cancellation of negative emotions toward the transgressing person forgiving
person also avoids himself from the victim role. Forgiveness does not happen
automatically. It requires a deep understanding of the situations and
circumstances and an informed decision to move from negative to positive
feelings.
According
to Worthington (2002) REACH model is useful for the forgiveness to occur.
Recall the hurt and the nature of the injury caused, promote empathy in both
partners, altruistically give the gift of forgiveness between partners, commit
verbally to forgive the partner and hold onto the forgiveness for each other.
REACH MODEL (Ripley & Worthington):
Recall the hurt & the injury
caused, promotes empathy in both partners. Altruistically give the gift of
forgiveness commit verbally to forgive the partner. Hold onto the forgiveness
for each other.
Forgiving oneself – Shame
reflects an overall feeling that – “I am a bad person”. Whereas guilt taps a
situation specific negative self view, for example “I did a bad thing” (C
Tangney, Boone & Dearing 2005)
Forgiveness of a situation –
Target of forgiveness can be another person, oneself or situation.
Empathy, altruism, gratitude
& forgiveness are linked to prosocial behavior patterns. The reinforcement
of positivity that they receive through such acts motivates them to act in
future as well.
Gratitude, forgiveness, &
altruism are very crucial in the establishment of a moral society.
Attachment, Love & Flourishing Relationships:
Love – the definitive history of
love (Singer 1984a, 1984b, 1987) highlights the following 4 traditions that
define primary emotional experience:
1. Eros
– search for the beautiful
2. Philia
– the affection in friendship
3. Nomos
– submission & obedience to the divine
4. Agape
– bestowal of love by the divine
“Romantic love may not be
essential in life but it may be essential to joy. Life without love would be
for many people like a black and white movie full of events and activities but
without the color that gives vibrancy and provides a sense of celebration”
(Hendrick & Hendrick 1992, p. 117).
Romantic love is a complex
emotion that may be parsed into passionate & companionate love (Berscheid
& Walster, 1978)
Passionate love (intense arousal)
involves a state of absorption between two people that often is accompanied by
moods ranging from ecstasy to anguish. Companionate love (soothing, steady
& warmth) is manifested in a strong bond with feelings of comfort &
peace. These two can occur simultaneously.
In developing triangular theory
of love, psychologist Robert Sternberg (1986) theorized that love is a mix of
three components:
1) Passion
– physical attractiveness & romantic drives
2) Intimacy
– feelings of closeness & connectedness
3) Commitment
– involving the decision to initiate & sustain a relationship.
Eastern influence theory of
Arthur Aron & Elaine Aron (1986) describe a self expansion theory of love.
According to this theory relationship satisfaction is a natural byproduct of
self – expansion love. I love you – means understand you, support you.
Wisdom:
For Erikson, wisdom reflects a
maturity in which concerns for the collective good transcend personal interests
(Erikson 1959). Robert Sternberg proposed the balance theory of wisdom as
specifying “the processes (balancing of interests & of responses to
environmental contexts) in relation to the goal of wisdom (achievement of
common good) (Sternberg, 1998 p-350)
The same person’s response to a
situation differs at various stages of life due to experience, cultural
background, values and generates wise responses. Wisdom involves coming to a
judgment when competing interests are combined.
According to Baltes & his
colleagues wisdom is the “ways & means of planning, managing & understanding
a good life”. (Baltes & Staudinger, 2000 p-124).
Becoming wise is a trait that can
be cultivated. Even difficulties, daily crises, knowledge, understanding of
environment & culture, motivation to do better are the building components
of wisdom.
Baltes & Staudinger (2000)
suggested that fluid intelligence, creativity, openness to experience, psychological
mindedness and general life experiences “orchestrate” to produce wisdom. It is
also recognized that role models, flexible thinking, guidance by teachers and
mentors, even travel is a good guide to wisdom. Economic background, age,
gender, professional background are not determining forces for development of
wisdom.
Courage
In our daily life we hear lots of
stories of courage by people of different walks. Courage generally involves
confidence, patience, perseverance, physical strength as a virtue to face the
challenges. Physical and moral aspects of courage have always been appreciated.
Petersen & Seligman in 2004
conceptualized courage as a core human virtue comprising strengths as valor
(taking physical, intellectual & emotional stances in the face of danger) authenticity,
enthusiasm/zest, and industry, perseverance (undertaking tasks and challenges
and finishing them).
O’ Byrne et.al (2000) identified
three types of courage as physical, moral and vital. According to her physical
courage involves the attempted maintenance of societal good, moral courage the behavioral
expression of authenticity even in discomforting situation. Vital courage refers
to perseverance trough a disease even when the outcome is uncertain. Sometimes
great acts of courage save thousands of lives through the miraculous efforts of
a person.
Psychological courage is required
to overcome threats to our psychological stability of relation, stress &
sadness. Putman (1997) described it is strength in facing one’s destructive
habits.
Civil courage is defined by Greitemeyer,
Oswald, Fischer & Frey (2007) as “brave behavior accompanied by anger and indignation
that intends to enforce societal and ethical norms without considering one’s
own social costs.” (P-115)
Measurement of courage and
strengthening of courageous virtues can be achieved. Woodard (2004) used a
carefully researched definition of courage as the willingness to act for a
meaningful (noble, good) cause, despite experiencing fear. Courage can also be
inculcated through role models (celebrities, cinema, mass media, family values,
national character and so on. In India also in recent times lots of atrocities
taking place against women and the marginal section of society. First time to
stand up for protecting someone liberty may be difficult but later on it
becomes easy for these persons to act courageously.
Mindfulness, Flow and Spirituality:
There is no dearth of example in
our daily lives that we do certain acts over and over again even when the
eventual outcome is negative. Mindless pursuits of meaningless activities leave
us feeling bore and empty. Every day in our technology life style we spend
hours on facebook, internet and television and realizing at the end of the day
that had I not wasted my precious hours engaging in an activity that had no or
least significant outcome. The positive pursuits may bring about sanity in
daily life that is grounded in competence (Langer, 1989, 1997) and happiness
(Myers, 2000).
Moment to moment search for
optimal experiences gives us satisfaction and joy. Psychology of deeper meaning
leads to knowing the significance of our experience with our true emotional
selves.
From a positive psychology
perspective everyday of 16 hours presents us with 20,000 moments of 3 seconds
opportunities for engagement, for overcoming the negative and for pursuing the
positive. By attaching a bit of intentionality to our belief one can pursue on
a daily basis a richer life experience that includes more novelty (mindfulness),
more absorption (flow) and attention to the sacred (spirituality).
Each activity that we are engaged
with mindfulness can bring extra joy and contentment. Suppose as a teacher you
are mindful about the student’s overall well being. It will bring more satisfaction as compared to
a teacher who just focuses on academics. Similarly if a nurse is mindful of her
care giving activity and patient’s well being then the moment to moment choices
of activity will be more positive.
In most recent research Langer
(2009b) has conducted studies showing that being mindful about various aspects
of our life can have great health and well being benefits. In her book, “Clockwise:
Mindful Health and the Power of Possibility”, Langer states that many age
related declines & maladies maybe at least in part related to the type of
mindset that elderly develops as older groups that exists in same cultures.
Langer states that in being more mindful about not accepting these stereotypes
we may age better.
Mindlessness is about being
trapped in a rigid mindset, irrespective of contexts and circumstances, whereas
mindfulness is about a process of actively drawing novel distinctions,
generating sensibility to the context. Automaticity of behavior gives us
certificates of positive evaluations from others, removing us from the harm of
exploring uncertainty. Langer (2009b) argues that “aspects of our culture lead
us to try to reduce uncertainty.” We are in a state of constant hurry to meet
evaluations of others and imposing our own evaluations. Whereas mindfulness
requires emotional awareness and self regulated attention or Meta cognition and
a trust in unfolding of new situations.
The aim of mindfulness meditation
generally speaking is the “development of deep insight into the nature of
mental processes, consciousness, identity, reality, and the development of
optimal states of psychological well being and consciousness (Walsh 1983 p.19)
through opening up”.
Flow:
According to Csikszentmihalyi (cheek
sent me high, 1976) people pursue particular goals with great intensity in the
absence of external rewards (money and praise). Artistic creations, scientific
feat, doctors and a variety of people remain engaged single mindedly disregarding
fatigues and discomfort. Merging of action and awareness is considered as a
state of flow. In a state of flow time is not important rather it is more
intrinsically rewarding. The loss of self consciousness occurs as flow emerges
and it is a state of intense concentration in the act one is doing. A painter
lost in his painting, a social worker completely involved in the flow of his mission,
a son caring his parents with no concern for outer recognition are some of the
examples of flow state activity. Personality traits of curiosity, persistence
and low-centeredness are some of the characteristics associated with flow
state. Csikszentmihalyi described about auto telic personality (from Greek
words autos meaning self & telos meaning “end”), exhibited by a person who
enjoys life for own sake rather than meeting external goals.
The purpose of flow researchers
is to help people identify those activities that gives them flow and to
encourage people to invest their concentration and energies in that direction.
Spirituality:
In 2000, Hill defined
spirituality as “the feelings, thoughts & behavior that arise from a search
from the sacred” (p-66). Pargament and Mahoney (2009) also defined spirituality
“as search for the sacred” & elaborated, “people can take a virtually
limitless number of pathways in their attempts to discover, conserve and
transform the sacred.” (p.612). Peterson & Seligman (2004) contend that
spirituality is a universal strength of transcendence, stating “although the
specific content of spiritual beliefs varies, all cultures have a concept of an
ultimate, transcendent, sacred & divine force” (p.601).
Spiritual strivings are
associated with positive human values of respect for oneself and others,
interconnectedness of humanity, well being, hope and optimism.
There are ways that spirituality
can be practiced in our daily life, spending time in a prayer, meditation and
remaining involved in religious activities of service, listening to great
things from mythological texts lead to a general positive orientation towards
life.
Pro-social Behavior & Positive Psychology:
Altruism, gratitude, empathy are
pro-social behavior patterns along with forgiveness that can have positive
implications for the healthy community living. It is an ironical situation
these days that people in modern era have minimized their face to face interactions
muting our sense of sensibility towards others. This phenomenon is more
prevalent in an urban setting where people next door do not interact with each
other &and they do not feel bad about it. Ethno cultural empathy is also
lacking due to our less interaction with individuals from different cultural
backgrounds.
Volunteering for social
activities has gone down considerably in the recent years. Altruism is behavior
that is aimed at benefiting other person. Altruism can be motivated by personal
gain or benefit called egotism or through desire to benefit another person
irrespective of personal gain called empathy. Egotism – altruism hypothesis
suggests that we help others because it benefits us to do so such as praise,
reward and so on. C. Daniel Batson has described empathy in his book, The
Altruism Question; altruism involves human behavior that is aimed at promoting
another person’s well being.
It is a perquisite for normal
population people to have interactions with the people in need to have greater
empathy. For example if students from Goa visit Uttrakhand to see the victims
of disaster they will be able to break the us and then differences and realize
that they can take delight in helping them.
Parallels in the life
circumstances make people realize that we are all part of the same “grand
journey”, increases the propensity of a person to “walk in the shoes” of
another – with greater empathy the result. In a collectivistic culture like
India fostering the we perspective, can reveal routes toward cultivating
altruist behaviors.
Gratitude is derived from the
Latin word gratia which means grace or gratefulness. According to Robert Emmons
(2005, Personal Communication), gratitude emerges upon recognizing that one has
obtained a positive outcome from another individual who behaved in a way that
was 1.) Costly to him or her, 2.) Valuable to the recipient and, 3.)
Intentionally rendered.
Gratitude is also a natural
tendency to appreciate the everyday experiences and routine activities.
Describing about gratitude David Hume (1888, p.460) said that ingratitude is
“the most horrible & unnatural of all crimes that humans are capable of
committing”.
Those people whose gratitude
domain is made are likely to be more optimistic, more connected to other people
and happier. If one introspects not only about what one receives but also of
what we gives to others, gratitude awareness will enhance.
Positive Psychology and healthy
work place:
The emergence of a positive field
of positive organizational research (e.g. Kelloway 2011) .Organizations can
foster virtuous behaviors, subjective well- being at individual and
institutional level and can increase in psychological capital and flourishing
at work.
There is a growing amount of
research in the area of positive psychology to support the theory that money
can’t buy happiness and a term coined by (Myers 2000) “paradox of affluence”
has led them to conclude that income and well-being are not positively
correlated.
Positive organizational scholarship
was pioneered by Cameron, Dutton and Quinn (2003) and emphasized the positive
professions, dynamics, perspectives and out comes that occurs within
organizational contexts and that enable flourishing within individuals (Cameron
& Spreitzer 2012).
Employee’s have high work related
subjective well-being if they are satisfied with their job and they experience
frequent positive emotions and infrequent negative emotions at work (Bakker
&Oerlemans 2012).
In a workplace context,
subjective well-being has been linked to job performance, tax performance and
organizational citizenship behavior (Bakker & Oerlemans 2012).
Work identity is an important
source of self- identity and pursuing meaningful work activities leads to
happiness.
Psy-cap efficacy is a relatively
new construct with strong application to work place which comprises of
self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resilience. Resilience is the ability to
bounce back in adverse situations. By developing these core psychological
competencies of their employees, organizations may promote self-awareness in
leaders and employees and a more positive perception of what they aspire to do
within their organization (Avolio & Luthans2006). Heritable set point,
international activities and life circumstances are important sources of
happiness. Sustainable happiness levels can be achieved through gratitude acts
of kindness and clarity of vision about one’s self.
Work- Life Balance:
Role expectations that we occupy
in our life is a result of expectations of other’s about appropriate behavior
in a particular context. It has become a
valid conclusion after researches in this area that work life happiness or
conflict will have a positive effect in the family and the vice-versa.
According to systems theory a system can be defined as “Any two or more parts
that are related, such that change in any one part changes all parts.” (Hanson
1995 p-27).
According to work family border
theory, work family balance is defined as “satisfaction and good functioning at
work and home, with a minimum of role Conflict” (Clark 2000 p-751).
Mindfulness has been
significantly associated with work-family balance along with gender as an
importance source of this balance or conflict. Number of hours worked in a day
and changing schedules of work can also be a source of conflict.
Virtual offices and always
working with computers can blur the boundaries between work and home.
Antecedents of Empowerment:
In order to enhance empowerment
task autonomy, positive social climate, expressing confidence in employees
through participation in decision making are important factors. Involvement of
staff for initiating organizational change and co-operation sight at every
stage is equally important to bitching empowerment. High levels of job
empowerment increase the commitment and reduce the stress component.
HERO (Hope, Efficacy, Resilience
and Optimism) model was used by Luthans (2012).
New HR strategies focus on the
assessment and evaluation of engagement and reinforce engagement habits.
Positive leadership can have empowering effects on employees.
Learning needs to be active and
learner should be given equal importance like the instructor. Errors, mistakes
should not be avoided and an exploratory learning should be encouraged.
Sense –making communication where
employees understand and make sense of the organizational changes. Schein
(1999) recommends the use of small groups of assessing organizational culture.
Respectful Workplaces:
People perceive social clues at
the workplace and messages from others have an important impact on social
identity of people at work. Respectful interactions at the workplace enable
people to appreciate each other’s potential as a shared community.
Transformation leadership
processes help in creating a health climate of trust and self-efficacy at the
work-place. T-leaders increases followers self-efficacy through the Pygmalion
effect (i.e. leaders hold and communicate high performance expectations of
followers; Sivanathan, Annol, Turner & Barling, 2004) instilling the idea
in followers that they can perform to high standards and that the leader will
support them in doing so (Bass & Riggio, 2006).
Positive Psychology of
Education:
It is an undeniable reality in
every society that there are good teachers and bad teachers. Poor teachers not
only impair the learning and achievements of students, they can also inflict
deep psychological pain and development of a negative attitude about education
in general. Important components of positive schooling are care, trust and
respect for diversity. Trust in the classroom has received considerable
attention among educators and the consensus is that it yields both psychological
and performance benefits for students (Bryk & Schneider, 20002; Collins
2001).
Encouraging self-reliance and
confidence among students should be an important goal in the socialization of
the students.
Teachers should respect the
diversity of ideas and must not impose his/her world view. It is very important
for the students to realize the importance of their input in the learning
process.
Hope, motivation and new
approaches added with a sense of human has been found to be helpful in the
teaching learning process. Unleashing the enthusiasm and joy of learning that
increases intrinsic motivation to learn.
Buddhism:
Before I tell you about Buddhism
it is necessary to discuss the life history of Buddha known by Sakyamuni the
sage of Sakya’s or Thatagata, he who has arrived at truth. Born in 567 B.C
almost six century before Christ there lived a prince in India who left
everything in his search for nobility and spirituality known as Gautama,
another name Siddhartha (family name), he who has accomplished his aim, his
father’s name Suddhodana and mother’s Maya. Gautama’s mother died seven days
after his birth. He married Yasodhara, had a son Rahul who later became his
disciple. The story of suffering on the roads of Kapilvastu aged man bowed down
by years, man sick with fever, mourners weeping and mendicant friar awakened
his consciousness. Buddha as seeker of light adopted ascestism at the age of
29. For next 6 years he travelled to strange places with his five friends to a
solitary spot in Uruvella but could not get any solace from it.
The popular story describes the
act with great force. It is said he arose at midnight went to door of his
wife’s chamber and saw her sleeping, resting one hand on her baby’s head. He
had wished to take his son in his arms for a last embrace but the fear of
walking the young mother withheld him. He turned away and fled into the night
in search of light.
(Rhys Davis. J.R.A.S, 1891, the
sects of Buddhism) He took to meditation and prayer under “Bo tree” and Maya
attempted to describe him with allurements and violent attacks but he sat for
seven weeks under the tree.
He achieved salvation and
addressed his disciples “And now, herthern, I take my leave of you, all the
constituents of being are transitory: work out your salivation with diligence”
(Edwyn Bevan’s Hellenism and Christianity p-185).
Suffering: Buddha talked
about the four noble truths that there is suffering, that it has a cause, that
it can be suppressed and that there is a way to accomplish this, “Buddha
concludes, existence is pain the struggle to maintain individuality is painful
and the fluctuations of fortune are frightful (Samyutta Nikaya; Oldenberg,
Buddha, p-216-217)
Regarding the causes of suffering
Buddhism describes the role of craving for the satisfaction of senses and the
craving for prosperity as responsible factors. Transient things that vanish are
the source of suffering.
Ignorance and false desires are
main causes of suffering.
Buddhist theory distinguishes
individuality into two broad divisions Nama and Rupa, corresponding to mental
and physical features. Whatever is gross is form of Rupa and whatever is not
having form is called Arupino or phases of consciousness i.e. Skandhas of
feelings, perception, synthesis and intellect.
Namarupa has a division of five
skandhas-
i.
Rupa- material attributes
ii.
Vedana-feeling
iii.
Samjana- perception
iv.
Samskara’s or mental dispositions and will
v.
Vijnana or reasons.
These five
together constitute the complex grouping of self. Vijnana is intelligent which
comprehends abstract contents not conditioned by sense contact, while feelings
perceptions and dispositions are. (Milinda, ii 3.10)
Samkhya
System:
The authorship of this
system is ascribed to Kapila, which is derived from Samkahya or number giving
enumeration of the principals of cosmos. According to sayings Kapila was son of
Brahma, others say him as avatar of Vishnu. Still others identify with him as
incarceration of Agni and dated in the century before Buddha i.e. the Samkhya
pravacana sutra is attributed to Kapila.
Most of its work was written in 15th
century and 16th century A. D. According to samkhya principle the
existence of prakriti is due to principle of causality. In the words of samkhya
theory, cause and effects are developed and undeveloped stages of the same
entity. All the production is development (Udbhava) and all the destruction is
envelopment (Anubhava) or disappearance into the cause (Chan vi, 2,2). Identity of an object is fundamental while
the difference may be practical. The effect and cause are contained in the same
process although it is not evident easily. For example seeds are pressed to
produce the oil and crush the paddy to get the rice. It also distinguishes
between two kinds of causes, efficient and material. The material cause
directly brings to the effect. The efficient cause exerts influence from
outside. When there is a change in the quality of a thing it is called Dharma.
Parinama, when the potential becomes actual and when the change is only
external, it is a case of Laksana- Parinama and when change occurs only due to
mere lapses of time it is known as Avastha-parinama.
Prakriti:
All the things and states are subject
to the law of change taking place everywhere every moment. There must be an
uncaused cause if effects are latent in the causes. Samkhya Karika argues that
individual things limited in magnitude can’t be the source of universe. There
is obvious unity of universe. This suggests a single cause as different
elements are not completely distinct from one another. Samkhya also suggest
that nothing can be evolved which is not in kind originally involved. While
every effect is caused, prakriti has no cause, but is the cause of all effects,
from which it is inferred.
The products are caused while prakriti
is uncaused. The products are dependent while prakriti is independent, the
products are many in number, limited in space and time while prakriti is one
all pervading and eternal(Pradhiyate(S.P.B., i-125)
We do not know the real nature of
prakriti or the gunas, since our knowledge is confined to the phenomena; it is
devoid of sound and touch, practically the limit beyond which we can’t go. It
is empirically an abstraction, a mere name. But it must be assumed to exist as
the pious of all creation. (vayasa. Y.b.IV 13, S.P.B. i-128, Vishnupurana. i.
2-2021)
The
Gunas:
The development of prakriti takes
place with the support of three gunas called Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. Sat is
also known as light, produces happiness and perfection. Rajas is a life of
activity and produce pain. Tamas is the obstacle, indifference and restrain
producing sloth. The term Sattva, Rajas & Tamas are always changing into
one another. They evolve, join and separate. No one loses its power though the
others may be actively at work. (Y.S. II, 18)
All things are composed of three gunas. According to samkhya theory a
thing is always produced not created in which Sattva the essence to be realized
is impeded by obstacles of Tamas, and rajas is the force for the creation of
the essential. The Sattva represents the positive and Tamas represents the
negative while process of stirring is represented by rajas.
Evolution:
The natural condition of prakriti is state of rest, all forces held
together in state of equilibrium. When there is a disturbance of the equilibrium
of the gunas we have the destruction of prakriti, the relieving of tension by
overweighing of one side and the sitting in of the process of the coming.
Mahat or the great signifies the
cosmic aspect; buddhi signifies the psychological aspect of each individual.
Synonymous of buddhi also known as virtue (dharma) knowledge (Jnana) equanimity
(vairagya) and lordship (aishvarya) which is both eternal and non- eternal.
Samkhya system also describes the
possibility of cosmic Ahamkara out of which individual subjects and objects
arise. The concept of selfhood is not possible without an object. Impressions
coming from the outer world give rise to Ahamkara and Mahat stands to Ahamkara
as consciousness stands to self consciousness.
Manas is the organ which integrates
sense data into percept and actions.
While prakriti is the only cause, some
products are effects and some are both cause & effects. But the purpose is
neither cause nor effect. Beginning and end are determined and the process of
development is only the unfolding of what has already existence.
Space
and Time:
According to samkhya
theory cosmic process is twofold in nature, creation or unfolding of the
different orders of prakriti and destruction or the dissolution of them into
original prakriti.
Though prakriti is one and only which
is common to all purusas, its manifestations may take varied ways to the souls
in bondages from subtlest to grossest.
PURUSAS:
The lives of individual
physical organizations imbed the life of soul and purusas are freed from all
the accidents of finite life and lifted above time and change. From
epistemology point of view subjects are one part of the reality and objects are
another part and their relationship is known as experience. Samkhya considers
the knower as Purusa and known as Prakriti.
To describe the existence of purusas samkhya
suggests that aggregate of things must exist for the sake of another. The
striving for liberation and escape from the conditions of existence is purusa.
Purusa’s nature as unfailing light does not change (S.P.S., i-146)
It is present in dreamless sleep as
well as in states of waking and dreaming, which are all modifications of buddhi
(S.P.S, i-148, S.P.B., i-148). So purusa exists, though it is neither cause nor
effect.
Pleasure and pain belong to the buddhi
(S.P.S, vi-11) purusa is incapable of movement and on attaining release it does
not go anywhere (S.P.S., I.49, S.K.3). It is not of limited size, since then it
would be made up of parts and so be destructive (i.p.50).
Purusa of samkhya is also related to
conception of Atman in Upanishads. Purusa is unrelated to prakriti (Brahma
Upanishad IV 3-15). It is mere witness, a solitary, indifferent and passive
spectator. (Samkhya Karika 19).
Prakriti
and Purusa:
Prakriti evolves through
various ups and downs which are not a result of conscious reflection and the
presence of purusa excites prakriti to movement and development. Prakriti in
itself is behind but its unity with purusa produced varieties in the world.
We can understand the relation of purusa and prakriti. In samkhya Karika
Gaudapada says” As a lame man and a blind man deserted by their fellow traveler,
who in making their way with difficulty through a forest, had been dispersed by
robbers, and happening to encounter each other, and entering into conversation
so as to inspire mutual confidences, agree to divide between them duties of
walking and seeing. Accordingly the lame man was mounted on blind man’s
shoulders and was thus carried on his journey, whilst the blind man was enabled
to pursue his root by the directions of his companion. In the same manner the
faculty of seeing is in the soul, though not that of moving it is like the lame
man, the faculty of moving is in the prakriti but not of seeing, which
resembles therefore the blind man. Further as a separation takes place between
the lame man and the blind man, when their mutual object is accomplished and
when they have reached the end of journey, so prakriti having effected the
liberation of purusa, causes to act and purusa having contemplated prakriti
obtains freedom and so their respective purpose being affected, the connection
between them dissolved (Bhasya or Karika p.21).
Jainism:
Jaina theory describe five kind of
knowledge, a) first is Mati or ordinary cognition which includes Smriti or
knowledge and Samjna or recognition.
b) Sruti- it is knowledge derived
through description of signs and symbols.
c) Avadhi- It is knowledge even from
distance of a time and space sometimes similar to clairvoyance.
d) Mananparyay is direct knowledge of
thoughts of others which is similar to telepathy.
e) Kevala or Perfect knowledge- It is
omniscient knowledge that comprehends everything which can’t be described
through senses.
When soul is uninterrupted by
passion, emotions and influences of matter knowledge acquires the function of
omniscience or knowledge of past, present and future.
According to Jainism
knowledge is of two forums, Pramana or knowledge of thing as it is in itself
and Naya or knowledge of things in its relation. Naya or standpoints is central
feature of Jain logic which describes standpoints as a relativity factor or the
conception that belongs to them, or partial views are the outcome of the
purpose we pursue. Form positive psychology perspective with the perspective of
Jain theory it is important to realize that to occupy one standpoint is not to
deny the other standpoints. If we perceive truth as relative to our standpoints
many of our dilemmas of existential nature could be solved.
Another feature of Jainism theory is
called Syadvada, that all knowledge is only probable. Whenever we adopt
certainly in our behavior in either or category result is momentary
satisfaction. For the long term satisfaction one should perceive complex nature
of reality and its indefiniteness. Every proposition is true or false under
certain conditions that means Jainism talks of openness of possibilities of the
same situation. Jainism also talks about the hypothesis of an absolute and
describe that things are one in their universal aspect (Karan) and many in
their participation aspect (Karya). Subjects and objects are not separate
existence rather these are unity in duality or duality in unity and if we
suppress either of them the whole is dissolved.
The concept of time has also been
narrated in a transcendental nature. Time has been described in two types one
is called eternal without form or magnitude and another as relative with
beginning and end. Time without magnitude is Kala and relative time is called
Samaya. Time is represented as Wheel or Chakra.
The way to Nirvana lies in upgrading
the morality standard. Three jewels prescribed by Jainism (Triratna) faith in
Jiva, knowledge of his doctrine and perfect conduct are the ways to achieve
nirvana. Believing in the reality of existence is considered as right faith,
knowledge without don lit is considered as right knowledge and attitude of
neutrality without desire and attachment to the eternal world is called right
conduct.
Virtue prescribed by Jainism consists
of Innocence (Ahimsa), Charity, honorable conduct, Chastity and Renunciation of
worldly interests. That means to achieve salvation one should follow this
principle of virtuous life which is also highlighted in positive psychology.
Ethical standards highlighted in
Jainism emphasize patience, discipline and ahimsa as highest good.
Taoism:
The
activity of conscious mind creates variety of objections stopping our
spontaneous fantasy activity in spite of real insight. We are so much
accustomed to classify or aestheticize our conscious efforts that we rarely
allow a new attitude that is supposedly irrational. If we don’t allow reversal
of realities of natural type enlargement and enrichment of personality will not
take place. The higher stages of consciousness can only be achieved by means of
integrity.
“The
suletlest secret of the Tao is human nature’s life.”
Light
of heaven symbolical equivalent of consciousness is expressed by analogies with
light.
Intensification
of consciousness is necessary to acquire the true self. Separation of
consciousness with unconsciousness will lead to uprooting of consciousness and
the realization of Tao depends upon reunion with the unconscious laws of our
being.
The
golden flower is the light, and the light of heaven is the Tao.
Darkness
gives birth to light.
According
to Hui Ming Ching the “germinal vesicle” is the dragon castle at the bottom of
the sea on the “kingdom of greatest joy.” Many of the earlier gods developed from
“persons” into personified ideas and finally into abstract ideas.
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